XML for Representing Learning Objects

In education, as in many fields, XML is seen as a solid basis for sharing materials and information in digital form. This is of great relevance in this project for two reasons:

  1. In order to understand and teach XML, it is necessary to understand in depth at least one area in which XML has been used; since I have created digital learning materials for many years, I am familiar with the concepts and can see the relevance of XML elements.
  2. It is my goal to create the XML course materials themselves using XML. In order to do that, it is most realistic (and efficient) not to create my own schema, but to understand and use schema(s) that are already in use in the field.

"Learning Object" is a general term referring to materials - usually, but not necessarily digital - designed to enhance or support learning. In the digital world, locating learning objects, determining their usefulness, applicability, and sequence, is an increasing challenge as the number of available learning objects becomes larger.

This page contains notes on several sources of information relating to digital learning objects and the use of XML to represent them.

General Background

Wikipedia "eLearning":

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learning
"One standard for presenting e-learning content is SCORM whilst other specifications allow for the transporting of "learning objects" (Schools Interoperability Framework) or categorizing meta-data (UKLOM)."

Wikipedia "Learning Objects":

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_Objects
"A learning object is a reusable unit of instruction for e-learning. In order to use it in different contexts, the presentation has to be separated from the content. which calls for specific data formats. SCORM is such a format."

Wikipedia "SCORM" "Shareable Content Object Reference Model":

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCORM
which contains references to:

Wikipedia "Schools Interoperability Framework":

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schools_Interoperability_Framework
"Schools Interoperability Framework Association": http://www.sifinfo.org/

These standards are XML-based. They are aimed primarily at K-12 US education. See especially "Instructional Services" for possibly useful markup.

Wikipedia "Moodle":

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodle
"Moodle is an open source e-learning platform. It has a relatively large—and rapidly growing—user base. Moodle is a course management system (CMS)—a software package designed to help educators create quality online courses. Such e-learning systems are sometimes also called Learning Management Systems (LMS), Virtual Learning Environments (VLE), education via computer-mediated communication (CMC) or Online Education."

MERLOT

"Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching"

http://www.merlot.org/
"MERLOT is a free and open resource designed primarily for faculty and students of higher education."

United Kingdom Learning Object Metadata Core or "UK LOM" Core

http://www.cetis.ac.uk/profiles/uklomcore
currently a draft schema researched by a community of practitioners to identify common UK practice in learning object content. Who's involved in standards? http://www.cetis.ac.uk/static/whos-involved.html

Canada Learning Object Project eduSource

http://www.edusource.ca/
eduSource is a Canada-wide project to create the infrastructure for a network of interoperable learning object repositories.

CanCore

http://www.cancore.ca/
"An application profile (like the UK LOM Core [6]) of the Learning Object Metadata standard (IEEE 1484.12.1-2002 [7]). However, unlike many application profiles, CanCore provides detailed guidance for the interpretation and implementation of each data element in the LOM standard."

Burrokeet

http://www.burrokeet.org/
An Open Source Software tool that assists in the creation of Learning Objects from existing content.

IMS Global Learning Consortium

http://www.imsglobal.org/
The mission of the IMS Global Learning Consortium is to support the adoption and use of learning technology worldwide. IMS is a non-profit organization that includes more than 50 Contributing Members and affiliates.

AICC

http://www.aicc.org/
The Aviation Industry CBT (Computer-Based Training) Committee (AICC) is an international association of technology-based training professionals. The AICC develops guidelines for aviation industry in the development, delivery, and evaluation of CBT and related training technologies. The objectives of the AICC are as follows:

  1. Assist airplane operators in development of guidelines which promote the economic and effective implementation of computer-based training (CBT) media.
  2. Develop guidelines to enable interoperability.
  3. Provide an open forum for the discussion of CBT (and other) training technologies.

IEEE LTSC

http://ieeeltsc.org/
The IEEE LTSC consists of working groups that develop technical standards in various areas of information technology for learning, education and training. Their aim is to facilitate the development, use, maintenance and interoperation of educational resources. The LTSC is most well known for the work on the Learning Object Metadata Standard (LOM) and the standardisation of the AICC CMI.

LOM/XML page: http://ieeeltsc.org/wg12LOM/

Background on XML schemas and XSDs

ARIADNE Knowledge Pool System

http://www.ariadne-eu.org
A European-wide distributed repository for learning and teaching resources, and documents relating to learning and teaching. It is sometimes also referred to as the "European Knowledge Pool". Further information about this system, as well as about the authoring and indexing tools that have been developed by ARIADNE can be found on the web site at: http://www.ariadne-eu.org

Dublin Core Metadata Initiative

http://dublincore.org/
The DCMI is an open forum engaged in the development of interoperable online metadata standards that support a broad range of purposes and business models.

The Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) (http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/) contains 15 elements, which can be refined to add richness of description. The DCMES is used world-wide for the description of information resources. DCMI activities include consensus-driven working groups, global workshops, conferences, standards liaison and dissemination efforts.

Designing Courses

http://www.ibritt.com/resources/dc_objects.htm
Learning Objects, SCOs, IMS Standards, XML, SGML, etc. This page is an annotated biliography with lots of helpful resrouces!

Macromedia MX: Creating Learning Objects

http://www.macromedia.com/resources/elearning/objects/
by Ann Gallenson, Jay Heins and Tanya Heins
December 2002

"This white paper outlines the anatomy of a learning object, offers design and development strategies, and suggests technical best practices for building and deploying dynamic learning objects using the Macromedia MX product suite. This document describes the LO [Learning Object] Demo application that is used to create dynamic Learning Objects." (Explains what was originally a high-level marketing tool.)

The Instructional Use of Learning Objects

http://www.reusability.org/read/
"This is the online version of...a new book that tries to go beyond the technological hype and connect learning objects to instruction and learning." Here are summaries of some interesting articles; in two cases, the articles were interesting enough to merit summaries on separate pages.

Learning Object Systems as Constructivist Learning Environments: Related Assumptions, Theories and Applications

by Brenda Bannan-Ritland, Nada Dabbagh & Kate Murphy (2000)
http://www.reusability.org/read/chapters/bannan-ritland.doc
in The Instructional Use of Learning Objects, http://www.reusability.org/read/

Exploration of recent learning theories as applied to learning objects. Very helpful. For details, see bannan-ritland-summary.htm. [Document saved as Bannan-Ritland.doc]

Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy

by David A. Wiley.
http://www.reusability.org/read/chapters/wiley.doc
in The Instructional Use of Learning Objects, http://www.reusability.org/read/

[Document saved as Wiley_Learning_Object_Taxonomy.doc]
see also wiley-learning-object-taxonomy-summary.htm

Designing resource-based learning and performance support systems

by Michael J. Hannafin, Janette R. Hill, and James E. McCarthy.
http://www.reusability.org/read/chapters/hannafin.doc
in The Instructional Use of Learning Objects, http://www.reusability.org/read/

Collaboratively filtering learning objects

by Mimi M. Recker, Andrew Walker, and David A. Wiley.
http://www.reusability.org/read/chapters/recker.doc.
in The Instructional Use of Learning Objects, http://www.reusability.org/read/

Describes a system ("Altered Vista") designed to collect user opinions on various aspects of learning objects. No specific XML entities are given, but the concept is very useful. Very similar to Amazon.com's reviews and ratings, including the (planned) ability to search out people with similar opinions, and objects with similar ratings.

Knowledge objects and mental models

by M. David Merrill.
http://www.reusability.org/read/chapters/merrill.doc
in The Instructional Use of Learning Objects, http://www.reusability.org/read/

Merrill is a very senior educaitonal researcher and theorist. His ideas are interesting, but mired in layers of jargon and replete with references to his own work. Here are some extracts:

"Cognitive psychology suggests that a mental-model consists of two major components: knowledge structures (schema) and processes for using this knowledge (mental operations). The thesis of this paper is that the careful analysis of subject matter content (knowledge) can facilitate both the external representation of knowledge for purposes of instruction (knowledge objects) and the internal representation and use of knowledge by learners (mental-models)."

"Merrill (1987) suggested the following cardinal principles of instruction: